What causes lead to the statistics Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 500 words

What causes lead to the statistics - Essay Example Chile records high growth in developments in the agricultural sector; the level and number of industries have since grown in Chile. The high economic growth creates opportunity for most citizens improving the income. Education is also a sector in which the Chilean government is keen on. Gender equality is scoring low despite having had a female president; the women get fewer opportunities in job markets and leadership positions. The women fail to take up competitive opportunities like in science and engineering ending up on low salaries. Life expectancy in Mexico sets at 77.5 percent below the OECD standards, and it’s below the level in most countries. The level is dependent on the rate of government commitment to quality health. The Mexican government commits 6.2 percent of the GDP on health services. The standard of obesity and other chronic diseases is at 32.4 percent affecting the Life expectancy levels (World Bank publication 2014 11). Rate of substance abuse is also a contributor. Mexico is one of the largest economies with the purchasing power higher. Mexico has over time invested in industrialization with high diversity, large numbers of manufacturing firms and increases in the level of exports. The high industrialization has improved the gross income rate per individuals because of increased employments. The balance in the educational sector in urban and rural areas shows much parity (Lara 121-132). The government allocations in the education sector have since improved the area. Gender equality has since improved, but there are still high levels of imbalance in leadership, pay gap disparities and levels of domestic violence. Life expectancy is far below the world standard set levels due to the low standards of health service provision in the country. The number of health service facilities available for the population is small. Most rural people have difficulty in accessing health

Social Networking Site Essay Example for Free

Social Networking Site Essay Social networking sites are popular amongst student recent years. Some of the popular social networking websites are Facebook, Twitter Google+. Almost all the students would definitely have a profile in those sites. These facebook like sites will be taken up by students as for fun but some may start using it as fun and gets addicted to it. This article shows you the advantages and disadvantages of social networking sites for students. Advantages: Here is a list of advantages of using the social networking websites: 1. The main advantage of social networking site is that it helps in establishing connection with people, friends and relatives. It helps in sharing one’s view, share pictures and lots of other stuffs. 2. It helps students in interacting with one another and share ideas. This helps in improving student’s creativity. 3. The social networking websites can be accessed from any part of the globe. This helps the students to establish communication with their teachers and friends through which they can improve their knowledge. 4. Social networking sites are not only used by the students for sharing pictures, videos or it is not only meant for fun and entertainment. Through social networking sites like Facebook, LinkedIn one can become a member and can also post relevant information about campus drive. 5. Through these sites the students can establish contact with entrepreneurs, corporate people and can gain valuable information from them. 6. Social networking sites have taken a new dimension called marketing. Certain websites offer advertisements to its subscribers. Disadvantages: Every coin has two sides. Whenever there comes the point of advantages, disadvantages also comes into picture obviously. So some of the disadvantages are: 1. One of the major disadvantages of using social networking websites are the students get addicted to it. They used to spend hours in those social networking sites which can obviously degrade the student’s academic performance. 2. Some students may tend to use to these social networking sites till mid night or even more which can obviously lead to health related problems. 3. Some students may spend time in Facebook through which they lack to spend time with their family members. This can also be a disadvantage also. 4. Some students may provide detailed

Characterization in Hawthornes Young Goodman Brown Essay -- Young Goo

Characterization in â€Å"Young Goodman Brown†Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚      The dialogue, action and motivation revolve about the characters in the story (Abrams 32-33). It is the purpose of this essay to demonstrate the types of characters present in Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"Young Goodman Brown,† whether static or dynamic, whether flat or round, and whether protrayed through showing or telling.    There are only three well-developed, or three dimensional characters, in this short story, and they are the protagonist, Goodman Brown, and his wife, Faith, and the fellow-traveller or the devil. Faith is, of course, less well developed than her husband; much of her development comes from inference rather than from action,dialogue and explicitly expressed motivation as in the case of Goodman Brown.    From the very outset of the tale, Goodman is a person of action: â€Å"YOUNG GOODMAN BROWN came forth at sunset, into the street of Salem village, but put his head back, after crossing the threshold, to exchange a parting kiss with his young wife.† The reader sees him develop emotionally even as he walks away towards the woods:    So they parted; and the young man pursued his way, until, being about to turn the corner by the meeting-house, he looked back and saw the head of Faith still peeping after him, with a melancholy air, in spite of her pink ribbons.    "Poor little Faith!" thought he, for his heart smote him. "What a wretch am I, to leave her on such an errand! She talks of dreams, too. Methought, as she spoke, there was trouble in her face, as if a dream had warned her what work is to be done tonight. But, no, no! 'twould kill her to think it. Well; she's a blessed angel on earth; and after this one night, I'll cling to h... ...h these grave, reputable, and pious people, these elders of the church, these chaste dames and dewy virgins, there were men of dissolute lives and women of spotted fame, wretches given over to all mean and filthy vice, and suspected even of horrid crimes.    In this essay on Nathaniel Hawthorne’s â€Å"Young Goodman Brown† we have seen that the narrator’s use of the showing technique presents two dynamic characters, three round characters and a host of undeveloped, static characters.    WORKS CITED    Abrams, M. H. A Glossary of Literary Terms, 7th ed. New York: Harcourt Brace College Publishers, 1999.    Hawthorne, Nathaniel. â€Å"Young Goodman Brown.† 1835. http://www.cwrl.utexas.edu/~daniel/amlit/goodman/goodmantext.html    Wagenknecht, Edward. Nathaniel Hawthorne – The Man, His Tales and Romances. New York: Continuum Publishing Co., 1989.

Change Management Simulation Essay

As CEO and founder of Spectrum Sunglass Company, I want to bring a change in the company that can make the company and its products more environmentally sustainable. To do that, I need to convince 20 managers at Spectrum to adopt my initiative in 96 weeks. And I used 85 weeks to reach that goal. Here’s what I did. At the beginning, I want to let them be aware of this initiative as soon as possible, so my first 3 choices are to issue e-mail notice, walk the talk and hold town hall meetings,and I thought that would be a good way to start. But result is not good at all, no one seems to be affected, at that moment I noticed how difficult it is to bring a change into the company, no one wants to move from their confortable position, and they would pay no attention to what I said, I need put more devotion into it. After wasting 5 weeks, I start to conduct private interviews with 4 top managers to let them know this change project and to see what their opinions, the first conduct makes 6 people enter the awareness stage, and I got 4 different opinions. Then I spend week 6 to get consultant’s support and makes one person into the interest stage, because sometimes outside experts can gain the attention of organizational member better than internal authorities can. At week 8, I privately confronted the resister Andrew Chen who is the general counsel of the company, trying to persuade him since he plays such an important role in the company, but I failed, I think it is because I still have nothing to show him that I’m right, maybe after a short-term win of this change he may change his mind. At week 9, I conducted private interviews and got 5 people enter the awareness stage and 1 person enters the interest stage. And at week 10, I told a â€Å"success† story to 3 people, because I think the example of other companies that benefit from sustainability would make them interest in this project, and it turned out to make 1 person enter the interest stage and 1 person enters trial stage. Then I used private interviews and â€Å"success† stories alternatively though week 11 to week 15, because both of them took only one week to complete, so this would be the most efficient way to lead people into the awareness stage and make this awareness into interest, it turned out that I’m right and I successfully bring 9 people into awareness stage and 6 people into interest stage. And so far all 20 managers have been aware of this change project. At Week 16, I provided internal skill- building to show those who are willing to change the way to adopt this project, and I made 1 person enter the trial stage. At week 18 I decided to issue an e-mail notice, by now they should pay some attention to the context of this e-mail, and it made 1 person entered the interest stage. At week 19, I conducted a pilot project, hoping to achieve a short-term win that can nourish faith in the change efforts, and the results are that 1 person entered the interest stage, 1 person entered the trail stage and first person entered the adoption stage. At week 25, I conduct private interviews again and made 1 person enter the interest stage. And week 26, I privately confront resister Pal D’Arcy hoping that he may change his mind, but he didn’t. At week 27, I walked the talk and show them the actions aligned with the change initiative, and make 3 people enter the interest stage and 4 people enter the trial stage. At week 29, I recognized an adopter and hoping this would have an influence on others, but it only made one person enter the interest stage. At week 32, I provided external skill-building and made one trainee enter the trial stage and one enter the adoption stage. At week 36 I hold town hall meetings to communicate the change vision, and it made 3 people into the interest stage and 3 people into the trial stage. At week 38, I post progress reports and made 1 person into the trial stage. From week 39 to week 45, I choose to build a coalition of support and recognized an adopter, because I think it would bring the coalition members, the adopter and their friends into adoption stage, however, it affected no one, the reason is still unknown. At week 46, privately confronting resister still didn’t work. At Week 47, I told a â€Å"success† story again and made 1 person enter the adoption stage. At Week 48, I announced goals and deadlines to provide a target to aim for, but no one was affected, goals and deadlines may be to early to set. At week 52, I decided to walk the talk again, and got 2 people enter the trial stage and 4 people enter the adoption stage, the visible actions really worked. At week 55, I post progress reports to all, and made 2 people enter the trial stage. From week 56 to week 62, I conducted private interviews and pilot project but didn’t work. At week 63, I clarify organization values and made 1 person enter the trial stage and 8 people into the adoption stage, this is a big achieve, and I believe a change sticks when it melt into the company’s culture. At week 71, I tried to hold town hall meetings to make the last 4 people adopt but I failed. At week 73, I revise reward system to stimulate them and success at week 85. It took me 85 weeks to successfully convince all 20 managers to adopt this change, less than 96 weeks, so I think I’m a qualified change agent. However, I also take a lot of invalid actions and wasted a lot of time, so I’m not that efficient. If I can do it all over again, I will begin with private interviews, and avoid the invalid actions (though I still have no idea why some of these actions have no affect on any managers), and I will take the relationship network in to consideration when I make choice. I’m sure the result would be much better. This change management simulation and readings of 5 articles taught me a lot as a change agent in a company. First of all, I find that making a change happen is much more difficult than I thought, we all want benefits of change, but we are afraid of failure, so we prefer to stand at the comfortable position and refuse to move forward. As a change agent, I much help others to overcome these difficulties. To do that, I must understand the heart of change first. People will not be changed by what they are told, they can only be changed by what they believe, so I must find a right way to make them believe in this change initiative. And there are 8 steps I learned and used in this simulation. First is to create a sense of urgency, in the simulation I conducted private interviews with every one of 19 managers, trying to make them have this feeling of urgency. Second is to form a guiding team, in the simulation, I tried to approach those who are positive about this change first, and then pulled some of them as a guiding team. Then creating clear, simple visions and strategies. And the fourth one is to communicate the visions through simple messages, e-mail is a good way of communication in the simulation, but first I need to make them read and think about the e-mail I sent. The fifth is to empower people by removing obstacles to the vision, like providing internal and external skill-building in the simulation. The sixth one is to create short-term win, like conducting pilot project in the simulation, and this made people be more faithful about this change project and may change the resister’s mind. The seventh one is to maintain momentum, this is achieved by revise the reward system that encourage people to change in the simulation. The last one is to make change stick, and the best way to do that is to make this changed value be a part of culture of companies, like restructuring organization in simulation. I did the change management simulation as the CEO of the company, so the high authority in the company and good credit among the employees help me a lot to success. I think there would be more challenge if I were just a normal manager in the company.

College App

â€Å"Where are you from? † My stomach tightens and my mouth goes dry as I rack my brain for an answer that doesn't Involve explaining my entire life story. My anxiety over such a simple question may seem unnecessary, but I have spent the past seventeen years trying to come up with a suitable answer to that same question. I have grown up a proud daughter of a united States Army soldier, and in my father's line of work, never knowing where we'll be sent next is part of the job description. I was born in New York and from there moved to Georgia. Then we moved to Rhode Island, back to New York, Kansas,Virginia, and finally Washington. That's seven states. Not to mention, I have attended six different public schools and lived in seven different houses. You could say I've always been the new girl. My life is not Just in brown cardboard boxes though; it's picking up and moving at any given time. What can I say In response to this question? Should I say the snow drifts in New York be cause that's where I was born? Or should I say the rolling hills of Kansas because three years Is the longest Vive spent In one place? Some may feel sorry for me, but I couldn't Imagine Miming any other way.We are not defined by a geographic location, but rather the challenges we face and how we learn from them. Unexpected deployments and goodbyes have shown me that some lessons are harder than others, but I know that I am heading towards a bright future. Through my travels I have experienced a wide range of cultures and lifestyles that some can only dream of. Being an Army brat has made me adaptable, flexible, and empathic. So, a simple answer to this question Just wouldn't do my story Justice. I take a deep breath, smile, and say â€Å"I'm from everywhere. †

The Beatitudes Relevance Today Essays

The Beatitudes Relevance Today Essays The Beatitudes Relevance Today Essay The Beatitudes Relevance Today Essay The Beatitudes, (the eight declarations of blessedness) are found in Matthew’s gospel (Matthew 5:3-12), where it says Jesus Christ gave them to us in the Sermon on the Mount. The Greek word translated â€Å"blessed† means spiritual well-being and prosperity. However, are they still applicable? Is there still a parallel between today and 2000 years ago concerning The Beatitudes? Some argue that the beatitudes are pointless in 2016 because it is only Christianity that are familiar with them. You could say that more people are aware about that Ten Commandments as they are a lot more famous. There is a probability that even a big portion of Christians haven’t heard of the Beatitudes. The second reason to accompany this is that people have busier lives in modern society. These were created 2000 years ago, so they may be considered outdated. How can we be sure that those exact words came from Jesus’ mouth and were not reinterpreted by oth ers? This is a question many people today may ask, because they don’t have enough faith to believe without proof. My third reason to support this argument is that the Beatitudes are just a set of words – they aren’t actions. Nowadays, a visual representation, such as a YouTube video, showing agape may be proved a lot more effective. On the other hand, some people argue that the Beatitudes are still useful, especially considering we have recently entered the Year of Divine Mercy. This year is all about finding our true purposes in life one of them being to follow the ways of God in the Christian community. â€Å"Every day spent with God is a pilgrimage† (CCC). Luckily, we have the Beatitudes that we should treat like an instruction manual to guide us through the year – and through life. Another reason is that The Beatitudes are in the Bible, which means that Baptists can join us in believing in them. Baptists are Christians, but only believe in things said in the Bible, so things such as the

Free Essays on Mutual Fund Competition

A mutual fund is a corporation that pools large sums of money ranging from one million to several billions of dollars, pooled from millions of individual investors, just like you, who wish to save or make money. An individual or a team of professional money managers who invest the pool of money into stocks, bonds, or other securities runs mutual funds. I believe the form of competition a mutual fund would encounter would be monopolistic competition. The mutual fund competitive market would consist of the 10s are Charles Schwab, Merrill Lynch, Fidelity, etc. etc. A couple of examples of the funds available are income funds, and growth funds. Taken as a whole, my suggestion would be that large mutual fund markets are imperfectly competitive. The quality of the product does not seem to be related to the price of the product and the quality-price relationship does not seem to be improving in spite of the large number of suppliers in the market. It’s difficult to determine the quality of the product being sold. Securities are difficult to price because risk is difficult to judge. Both the market and mutual funds are responsible for prices. I believe their main focus would be not only who the competition is, but also, how well their competitors are doing on their returns for investors. If another firm is getting a better return for the same perceived amount of risk, they are more susceptible of losing their clients. The ease of entry into this market can be somewhat difficult. On the entry side of this industry, I think it would be difficult to enter this market because of the knowledge/track records needed to sell a particular mutual fund to potential investors. Also, money can be known as an entry barrier. Starting your own mutual fund organization is likely to be costly. Analysis using Porter’s Five Forces for Mutual Funds Starting at the center of Porter’s diagram, I looked at the competito... Free Essays on Mutual Fund Competition Free Essays on Mutual Fund Competition A mutual fund is a corporation that pools large sums of money ranging from one million to several billions of dollars, pooled from millions of individual investors, just like you, who wish to save or make money. An individual or a team of professional money managers who invest the pool of money into stocks, bonds, or other securities runs mutual funds. I believe the form of competition a mutual fund would encounter would be monopolistic competition. The mutual fund competitive market would consist of the 10s are Charles Schwab, Merrill Lynch, Fidelity, etc. etc. A couple of examples of the funds available are income funds, and growth funds. Taken as a whole, my suggestion would be that large mutual fund markets are imperfectly competitive. The quality of the product does not seem to be related to the price of the product and the quality-price relationship does not seem to be improving in spite of the large number of suppliers in the market. It’s difficult to determine the quality of the product being sold. Securities are difficult to price because risk is difficult to judge. Both the market and mutual funds are responsible for prices. I believe their main focus would be not only who the competition is, but also, how well their competitors are doing on their returns for investors. If another firm is getting a better return for the same perceived amount of risk, they are more susceptible of losing their clients. The ease of entry into this market can be somewhat difficult. On the entry side of this industry, I think it would be difficult to enter this market because of the knowledge/track records needed to sell a particular mutual fund to potential investors. Also, money can be known as an entry barrier. Starting your own mutual fund organization is likely to be costly. Analysis using Porter’s Five Forces for Mutual Funds Starting at the center of Porter’s diagram, I looked at the competito...

The Complete IB Biology Syllabus SL and HL

The Complete IB Biology Syllabus SL and HL SAT / ACT Prep Online Guides and Tips Oh, IB Biology. I took IB Biology SL back in my high school days. If you are looking at this syllabus, you're likely interested in taking the course or are currently enrolled in the course. In this article, I will go over the topics covered in IB Biology Standard Level and IB Biology Higher Level, as well as the number of hours dedicated to each topic along with what the IB expects you to understand for each topic. IB Biology SL and HL Core Both IB Biology SL and HL consist of the same core requirements (95 hours). Both classes cover the same six topics in the order listed below with the same subtopics listed below: Topic 1: Cell Biology- 15 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Introduction to cells 1.1 According to the cell theory, living organisms are composed of cells. Organisms consisting of only one cell carry out all functions of life in that cell. Surface area to volume ratio is important in the limitation of cell size. Multicellular organisms have properties that emerge from the interaction of their cellular components. Specialized tissues can develop by cell differentiation in multicellular organisms. Differentiation involves the expression of some genes and not others in a cell’s genome. The capacity of stem cells to divide and differentiate along different pathways is necessary in embryonic development and also makes stem cells suitable for therapeutic uses. Ultrastructure of cells 1.2 Prokaryotes have a simple cell structure without compartmentalization. Eukaryotes have a compartmentalized cell structure. Electron microscopes have a much higher resolution than light microscopes. Membrane structure 1.3 Phospholipids form bilayers in water due to the amphipathic properties of phospholipid molecules. Membrane proteins are diverse in terms of structure, position in the membrane and function. Cholesterol is a component of animal cell membranes. Membrane transport 1.4 Particles move across membranes by simple diffusion, facilitated diffusion, osmosis and active transport. The fluidity of membranes allows materials to be taken into cells by endocytosis or released by exocytosis. Vesicles move materials within cells. The origin of cells 1.5 Cells can only be formed by division of pre-existing cells. The first cells must have arisen from non-living material. The origin of eukaryotic cells can be explained by the endosymbiotic theory. Cell division 1.6 Mitosis is division of the nucleus into two genetically identical daughter nuclei. Chromosomes condense by supercoiling during mitosis. Cytokinesis occurs after mitosis and is different in plant and animal cells. Interphase is a very active phase of the cell cycle with many processes occurring in the nucleus and cytoplasm. Cyclins are involved in the control of the cell cycle. Mutagens, oncogenes and metastasis are involved in the development of primary and secondary tumours. Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic 2: Molecular Biology- 21 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Molecules to metabolism 2.1 Molecular biology explains living processes in terms of the chemical substances involved. Carbon atoms can form four covalent bonds allowing a diversity of stable compounds to exist. Life is based on carbon compounds including carbohydrates, lipids, proteins and nucleic acids. Metabolism is the web of all the enzyme-catalysed reactions in a cell or organism. Anabolism is the synthesis of complex molecules from simpler molecules including the formation of macromolecules from monomers by condensation reactions. Catabolism is the breakdown of complex molecules into simpler molecules including the hydrolysis of macromolecules into monomers. Water 2.2 Water molecules are polar and hydrogen bonds form between them. Hydrogen bonding and dipolarity explain the cohesive, adhesive, thermal and solvent properties of water. Substances can be hydrophilic or hydrophobic. Carbohydrates and lipids 2.3 Monosaccharide monomers are linked together by condensation reactions to form disaccharides and polysaccharide polymers. Fatty acids can be saturated, monounsaturated or polyunsaturated. Unsaturated fatty acids can be cis or trans isomers. Triglycerides are formed by condensation from three fatty acids and one glycerol. Proteins 2.4 Amino acids are linked together by condensation to form polypeptides. There are 20 different amino acids in polypeptides synthesized on ribosomes. Amino acids can be linked together in any sequence giving a huge range of possible polypeptides. The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is coded for by genes. A protein may consist of a single polypeptide or more than one polypeptide linked together. The amino acid sequence determines the three-dimensional conformation of a protein. Living organisms synthesize many different proteins with a wide range of functions. Every individual has a unique proteome. Enzymes 2.5 Enzymes have an active site to which specific substrates bind. Enzyme catalysis involves molecular motion and the collision of substrates with the active site. Temperature, pH and substrate concentration affect the rate of activity of enzymes. Enzymes can be denatured. Immobilized enzymes are widely used in industry. Structure of DNA and RNA 2.6 The nucleic acids DNA and RNA are polymers of nucleotides. DNA differs from RNA in the number of strands present, the base composition and the type of pentose. DNA is a double helix made of two antiparallel strands of nucleotides linked by hydrogen bonding between complementary base pairs. DNA replication, transcription and translation 2.7 The replication of DNA is semi-conservative and depends on complementary base pairing. Helicase unwinds the double helix and separates the two strands by breaking hydrogen bonds. DNA polymerase links nucleotides together to form a new strand, using the pre-existing strand as a template. Transcription is the synthesis of mRNA copied from the DNA base sequences by RNA polymerase. Translation is the synthesis of polypeptides on ribosomes. The amino acid sequence of polypeptides is determined by mRNA according to the genetic code. Codons of three bases on mRNA correspond to one amino acid in a polypeptide. Translation depends on complementary base pairing between codons on mRNA and anticodons on tRNA. Cell respiration 2.8 Cell respiration is the controlled release of energy from organic compounds to produce ATP. ATP from cell respiration is immediately available as a source of energy in the cell. Anaerobic cell respiration gives a small yield of ATP from glucose. Aerobic cell respiration requires oxygen and gives a large yield of ATP from glucose. Photosynthesis 2.9 Photosynthesis is the production of carbon compounds in cells using light energy. Visible light has a range of wavelengths with violet the shortest wavelength and red the longest. Chlorophyll absorbs red and blue light most effectively and reflects green light more than other colours. Oxygen is produced in photosynthesis from the photolysis of water. Energy is needed to produce carbohydrates and other carbon compounds from carbon dioxide. Temperature, light intensity and carbon dioxide concentration are possible limiting factors on the rate of photosynthesis. Topic 3: Genetics- 15 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Genes 3.1 A gene is a heritable factor that consists of a length of DNA and influences a specific characteristic. A gene occupies a specific position on a chromosome. The various specific forms of a gene are alleles. Alleles differ from each other by one or only a few bases. New alleles are formed by mutation. The genome is the whole of the genetic information of an organism. The entire base sequence of human genes was sequenced in the Human Genome Project. Chromosomes 3.2 Prokaryotes have one chromosome consisting of a circular DNA molecule. Some prokaryotes also have plasmids but eukaryotes do not. Eukaryote chromosomes are linear DNA molecules associated with histone proteins. In a eukaryote species there are different chromosomes that carry different genes. Homologous chromosomes carry the same sequence of genes but not necessarily the same alleles of those genes. Diploid nuclei have pairs of homologous chromosomes. Haploid nuclei have one chromosome of each pair. The number of chromosomes is a characteristic feature of members of a species. A karyogram shows the chromosomes of an organism in homologous pairs of decreasing length. Sex is determined by sex chromosomes and autosomes are chromosomes that do not determine sex. Meiosis 3.3 One diploid nucleus divides by meiosis to produce four haploid nuclei. The halving of the chromosome number allows a sexual life cycle with fusion of gametes. DNA is replicated before meiosis so that all chromosomes consist of two sister chromatids. The early stages of meiosis involve pairing of homologous chromosomes and crossing over followed by condensation. Orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes prior to separation is random. Separation of pairs of homologous chromosomes in the first division of meiosis halves the chromosome number. Crossing over and random orientation promotes genetic variation. Fusion of gametes from different parents promotes genetic variation. Inheritance 3.4 Mendel discovered the principles of inheritance with experiments in which large numbers of pea plants were crossed. Gametes are haploid so contain only one allele of each gene. The two alleles of each gene separate into different haploid daughter nuclei during meiosis. Fusion of gametes results in diploid zygotes with two alleles of each gene that may be the same allele or different alleles. Dominant alleles mask the effects of recessive alleles but co-dominant alleles have joint effects. Many genetic diseases in humans are due to recessive alleles of autosomal genes, although some genetic diseases are due to dominant or co-dominant alleles. Some genetic diseases are sex-linked. The pattern of inheritance is different with sex-linked genes due to their location on sex chromosomes. Many genetic diseases have been identified in humans but most are very rare. Radiation and mutagenic chemicals increase the mutation rate and can cause genetic diseases and cancer. Genetic modification and biotechnology 3.5 Gel electrophoresis is used to separate proteins or fragments of DNA according to size. PCR can be used to amplify small amounts of DNA. DNA profiling involves comparison of DNA. Genetic modification is carried out by gene transfer between species. Clones are groups of genetically identical organisms, derived from a single original parent cell. Many plant species and some animal species have natural methods of cloning. Animals can be cloned at the embryo stage by breaking up the embryo into more than one group of cells. Methods have been developed for cloning adult animals using differentiated cells. Topic 4: Ecology- 12 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Species, communities and ecosystems 4.1 Species are groups of organisms that can potentially interbreed to produce fertile offspring. Members of a species may be reproductively isolated in separate populations. Species have either an autotrophic or heterotrophic method of nutrition (a few species have both methods). Consumers are heterotrophs that feed on living organisms by ingestion. Detritivores are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from detritus by internal digestion. Saprotrophs are heterotrophs that obtain organic nutrients from dead organisms by external digestion. A community is formed by populations of different species living together and interacting with each other. A community forms an ecosystem by its interactions with the abiotic environment. Autotrophs obtain inorganic nutrients from the abiotic environment. The supply of inorganic nutrients is maintained by nutrient cycling. Ecosystems have the potential to be sustainable over long periods of time. Energy flow 4.2 Most ecosystems rely on a supply of energy from sunlight. Light energy is converted to chemical energy in carbon compounds by photosynthesis. Chemical energy in carbon compounds flows through food chains by means of feeding. Energy released from carbon compounds by respiration is used in living organisms and converted to heat. Living organisms cannot convert heat to other forms of energy. Heat is lost from ecosystems. Energy losses between trophic levels restrict the length of food chains and the biomass of higher trophic levels. Carbon cycling 4.3 Autotrophs convert carbon dioxide into carbohydrates and other carbon compounds. In aquatic ecosystems carbon is present as dissolved carbon dioxide and hydrogen carbonate ions. Carbon dioxide diffuses from the atmosphere or water into autotrophs. Carbon dioxide is produced by respiration and diffuses out of organisms into water or the atmosphere. Methane is produced from organic matter in anaerobic conditions by methanogenic archaeans and some diffuses into the atmosphere or accumulates in the ground. Methane is oxidized to carbon dioxide and water in the atmosphere. Peat forms when organic matter is not fully decomposed because of acidic and/or anaerobic conditions in waterlogged soils. Partially decomposed organic matter from past geological eras was converted either into coal or into oil and gas that accumulate in porous rocks. Carbon dioxide is produced by the combustion of biomass and fossilized organic matter. Animals such as reef-building corals and mollusca have hard parts that are composed of calcium carbonate and can become fossilized in limestone. Climate change 4.4 Carbon dioxide and water vapour are the most significant greenhouse gases. Other gases including methane and nitrogen oxides have less impact. The impact of a gas depends on its ability to absorb long wave radiation as well as on its concentration in the atmosphere. The warmed Earth emits longer wavelength radiation (heat). Longer wave radiation is absorbed by greenhouse gases that retain the heat in the atmosphere. Global temperatures and climate patterns are influenced by concentrations of greenhouse gases. There is a correlation between rising atmospheric concentrations of carbon dioxide since the start of the industrial revolution 200 years ago and average global temperatures. Recent increases in atmospheric carbon dioxide are largely due to increases in the combustion of fossilized organic matter. Topic 5: Evolution and Biodiversity- 12 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Evidence for evolution 5.1 Evolution occurs when heritable characteristics of a species change. The fossil record provides evidence for evolution. Selective breeding of domesticated animals shows that artificial selection can cause evolution. Evolution of homologous structures by adaptive radiation explains similarities in structure when there are differences in function. Populations of a species can gradually diverge into separate species by evolution. Continuous variation across the geographical range of related populations matches the concept of gradual divergence. Natural selection 5.2 Natural selection can only occur if there is variation among members of the same species. Mutation, meiosis and sexual reproduction cause variation between individuals in a species. Adaptations are characteristics that make an individual suited to its environment and way of life. Species tend to produce more offspring than the environment can support. Individuals that are better adapted tend to survive and produce more offspring while the less well adapted tend to die or produce fewer offspring. Individuals that reproduce pass on characteristics to their offspring. Natural selection increases the frequency of characteristics that make individuals better adapted and decreases the frequency of other characteristics leading to changes within the species. Classification of biodiversity 5.3 The binomial system of names for species is universal among biologists and has been agreed and developed at a series of congresses. When species are discovered they are given scientific names using the binomial system. Taxonomists classify species using a hierarchy of taxa. All organisms are classified into three domains. The principal taxa for classifying eukaryotes are kingdom, phylum, class, order, family, genus and species. In a natural classification, the genus and accompanying higher taxa consist of all the species that have evolved from one common ancestral species. Taxonomists sometimes reclassify groups of species when new evidence shows that a previous taxon contains species that have evolved from different ancestral species. Natural classifications help in identification of species and allow the prediction of characteristics shared by species within a group. Cladistics 5.4 A clade is a group of organisms that have evolved from a common ancestor. Evidence for which species are part of a clade can be obtained from the base sequences of a gene or the corresponding amino acid sequence of a protein. Sequence differences accumulate gradually so there is a positive correlation between the number of differences between two species and the time since they diverged from a common ancestor. Traits can be analogous or homologous. Cladograms are tree diagrams that show the most probable sequence of divergence in clades. Evidence from cladistics has shown that classifications of some groups based on structure did not correspond with the evolutionary origins of a group or species. Topic 6: Human Physiology- 20 Hours for Both SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Digestion and absorption 6.1 The contraction of circular and longitudinal muscle of the small intestine mixes the food with enzymes and moves it along the gut. The pancreas secretes enzymes into the lumen of the small intestine. Enzymes digest most macromolecules in food into monomers in the small intestine. Villi increase the surface area of epithelium over which absorption is carried out. Villi absorb monomers formed by digestion as well as mineral ions and vitamins. Different methods of membrane transport are required to absorb different nutrients. The blood system 6.2 Arteries convey blood at high pressure from the ventricles to the tissues of the body. Arteries have muscle cells and elastic fibres in their walls. The muscle and elastic fibres assist in maintaining blood pressure between pump cycles. Blood flows through tissues in capillaries. Capillaries have permeable walls that allow exchange of materials between cells in the tissue and the blood in the capillary. Veins collect blood at low pressure from the tissues of the body and return it to the atria of the heart. Valves in veins and the heart ensure circulation of blood by preventing backflow. There is a separate circulation for the lungs. The heart beat is initiated by a group of specialized muscle cells in the right atrium called the sinoatrial node. The sinoatrial node acts as a pacemaker. The sinoatrial node sends out an electrical signal that stimulates contraction as it is propagated through the walls of the atria and then the walls of the ventricles. The heart rate can be increased or decreased by impulses brought to the heart through two nerves from the medulla of the brain. Epinephrine increases the heart rate to prepare for vigorous physical activity. Defense against infectious disease 6.3 The skin and mucous membranes form a primary defense against pathogens that cause infectious disease. Cuts in the skin are sealed by blood clotting. Clotting factors are released from platelets. The cascade results in the rapid conversion of fibrinogen to fibrin by thrombin. Ingestion of pathogens by phagocytic white blood cells gives non-specific immunity to diseases. Production of antibodies by lymphocytes in response to particular pathogens gives specific immunity. Antibiotics block processes that occur in prokaryotic cells but not in eukaryotic cells. Viruses lack a metabolism and cannot therefore be treated with antibiotics. Some strains of bacteria have evolved with genes that confer resistance to antibiotics and some strains of bacteria have multiple resistance. Gas exchange 6.4 Ventilation maintains concentration gradients of oxygen and carbon dioxide between air in alveoli and blood flowing in adjacent capillaries. Type I pneumocytes are extremely thin alveolar cells that are adapted to carry out gas exchange. Type II pneumocytes secrete a solution containing surfactant that creates a moist surface inside the alveoli to prevent the sides of the alveolus adhering to each other by reducing surface tension. Air is carried to the lungs in the trachea and bronchi and then to the alveoli in bronchioles. Muscle contractions cause the pressure changes inside the thorax that force air in and out of the lungs to ventilate them. Different muscles are required for inspiration and expiration because muscles only do work when they contract. Neurons and synapses 6.5 Neurons transmit electrical impulses. The myelination of nerve fibres allows for saltatory conduction. Neurons pump sodium and potassium ions across their membranes to generate a resting potential. An action potential consists of depolarization and repolarization of the neuron. Nerve impulses are action potentials propagated along the axons of neurons. Propagation of nerve impulses is the result of local currents that cause each successive part of the axon to reach the threshold potential. Synapses are junctions between neurons and between neurons and receptor or effector cells. When presynaptic neurons are depolarized they release a neurotransmitter into the synapse. A nerve impulse is only initiated if the threshold potential is reached. Hormones, homeostasis and reproduction 6.6 Insulin and glucagon are secreted by ÃŽ ² and ÃŽ ± cells of the pancreas respectively to control blood glucose concentration. Thyroxin is secreted by the thyroid gland to regulate the metabolic rate and help control body temperature. Leptin is secreted by cells in adipose tissue and acts on the hypothalamus of the brain to inhibit appetite. Melatonin is secreted by the pineal gland to control circadian rhythms. A gene on the Y chromosome causes embryonic gonads to develop as testes and secrete testosterone. Testosterone causes pre-natal development of male genitalia and both sperm production and development of male secondary sexual characteristics during puberty. Estrogen and progesterone cause pre-natal development of female reproductive organs and female secondary sexual characteristics during puberty. The menstrual cycle is controlled by negative and positive feedback mechanisms involving ovarian and pituitary hormones. Additional Higher Level Topics Only students taking IB Biology HL cover these topics. They consist of 60 hours of study. Topic 7: Nucleic Acids- 9 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand DNA structure and replication (HL ONLY) 7.1 Nucleosomes help to supercoil the DNA. DNA structure suggested a mechanism for DNA replication. DNA polymerases can only add nucleotides to the 3’ end of a primer. DNA replication is continuous on the leading strand and discontinuous on the lagging strand. DNA replication is carried out by a complex system of enzymes. Some regions of DNA do not code for proteins but have other important functions. Transcription and gene expression (HL ONLY) 7.2 Transcription occurs in a 5’ to 3’ direction. Nucleosomes help to regulate transcription in eukaryotes. Eukaryotic cells modify mRNA after transcription. Splicing of mRNA increases the number of different proteins an organism can produce. Gene expression is regulated by proteins that bind to specific base sequences in DNA. The environment of a cell and of an organism has an impact on gene expression. Translation (HL ONLY) 7.3 Initiation of translation involves assembly of the components that carry out the process. Synthesis of the polypeptide involves a repeated cycle of events. Disassembly of the components follows termination of translation. Free ribosomes synthesize proteins for use primarily within the cell. Bound ribosomes synthesize proteins primarily for secretion or for use in lysosomes. Translation can occur immediately after transcription in prokaryotes due to the absence of a nuclear membrane. The sequence and number of amino acids in the polypeptide is the primary structure. The secondary structure is the formation of alpha helices and beta pleated sheets stabilized by hydrogen bonding. The tertiary structure is the further folding of the polypeptide stabilized by interactions between R groups. The quaternary structure exists in proteins with more than one polypeptide chain. Want to get better grades and test scores? We can help. PrepScholar Tutors is the world's best tutoring service. We combine world-class expert tutors with our proprietary teaching techniques. Our students have gotten A's on thousands of classes, perfect 5's on AP tests, and ludicrously high SAT Subject Test scores. Whether you need help with science, math, English, social science, or more, we've got you covered. Get better grades today with PrepScholar Tutors. Topic 8: Metabolism, Cell Respiration, and Photosynthesis- 14 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Metabolism (HL ONLY) 8.1 Metabolic pathways consist of chains and cycles of enzyme-catalysed reactions. Enzymes lower the activation energy of the chemical reactions that they catalyse. Enzyme inhibitors can be competitive or non-competitive. Metabolic pathways can be controlled by end-product inhibition. Cell respiration (HL ONLY) 8.2 Cell respiration involves the oxidation and reduction of electron carriers. Phosphorylation of molecules makes them less stable. In glycolysis, glucose is converted to pyruvate in the cytoplasm. Glycolysis gives a small net gain of ATP without the use of oxygen. In aerobic cell respiration pyruvate is decarboxylated and oxidized, and converted into acetyl compound and attached to coenzyme A to form acetyl coenzyme A in the link reaction. In the Krebs cycle, the oxidation of acetyl groups is coupled to the reduction of hydrogen carriers, liberating carbon dioxide. Energy released by oxidation reactions is carried to the cristae of the mitochondria by reduced NAD and FAD. Transfer of electrons between carriers in the electron transport chain in the membrane of the cristae is coupled to proton pumping. In chemiosmosis protons diffuse through ATP synthase to generate ATP. Oxygen is needed to bind with the free protons to maintain the hydrogen gradient, resulting in the formation of water. The structure of the mitochondrion is adapted to the function it performs. Photosynthesis (HL ONLY) 8.3 Light-dependent reactions take place in the intermembrane space of the thylakoids. Light-independent reactions take place in the stroma. Reduced NADP and ATP are produced in the light-dependent reactions. Absorption of light by photosystems generates excited electrons. Photolysis of water generates electrons for use in the light-dependent reactions. Transfer of excited electrons occurs between carriers in thylakoid membranes. Excited electrons from Photosystem II are used to contribute to generate a proton gradient. ATP synthase in thylakoids generates ATP using the proton gradient. Excited electrons from Photosystem I are used to reduce NADP. In the light-independent reactions a carboxylase catalyses the carboxylation of ribulose bisphosphate. Glycerate 3-phosphate is reduced to triose phosphate using reduced NADP and ATP. Triose phosphate is used to regenerate RuBP and produce carbohydrates. Ribulose bisphosphate is reformed using ATP. The structure of the chloroplast is adapted to its function in photosynthesis. Topic 9: Plant Biology- 13 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Transport in the xylem of plants (HL ONLY) 9.1 Transpiration is the inevitable consequence of gas exchange in the leaf. Plants transport water from the roots to the leaves to replace losses from transpiration. The cohesive property of water and the structure of the xylem vessels allow transport under tension. The adhesive property of water and evaporation generate tension forces in leaf cell walls. Active uptake of mineral ions in the roots causes absorption of water by osmosis. Transport in the phloem of plants (HL ONLY) 9.2 Plants transport organic compounds from sources to sinks. Incompressibility of water allows transport along hydrostatic pressure gradients. Active transport is used to load organic compounds into phloem sieve tubes at the source. High concentrations of solutes in the phloem at the source lead to water uptake by osmosis. Raised hydrostatic pressure causes the contents of the phloem to flow towards sinks. Growth in plants (HL ONLY) 9.3 Undifferentiated cells in the meristems of plants allow indeterminate growth. Mitosis and cell division in the shoot apex provide cells needed for extension of the stem and development of leaves. Plant hormones control growth in the shoot apex. Plant shoots respond to the environment by tropisms. Auxin efflux pumps can set up concentration gradients of auxin in plant tissue. Auxin influences cell growth rates by changing the pattern of gene expression. Reproduction in plants (HL ONLY) 9.4 Flowering involves a change in gene expression in the shoot apex. The switch to flowering is a response to the length of light and dark periods in many plants. Success in plant reproduction depends on pollination, fertilization and seed dispersal. Most flowering plants use mutualistic relationships with pollinators in sexual reproduction. Topic #10: Genetics and Evolution- 8 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Meiosis (HL ONLY) 10.1 Chromosomes replicate in interphase before meiosis. Crossing over is the exchange of DNA material between non-sister homologous chromatids. Crossing over produces new combinations of alleles on the chromosomes of the haploid cells. Chiasmata formation between non-sister chromatids can result in an exchange of alleles. Homologous chromosomes separate in meiosis I. Sister chromatids separate in meiosis II. Independent assortment of genes is due to the random orientation of pairs of homologous chromosomes in meiosis I. Inheritance (HL ONLY) 10.2 Gene loci are said to be linked if on the same chromosome. Unlinked genes segregate independently as a result of meiosis. Variation can be discrete or continuous. The phenotypes of polygenic characteristics tend to show continuous variation. Chi-squared tests are used to determine whether the difference between an observed and expected frequency distribution is statistically significant. Gene pools and speciation (HL ONLY) 10.3 A gene pool consists of all the genes and their different alleles, present in an interbreeding population. Evolution requires that allele frequencies change with time in populations. Reproductive isolation of populations can be temporal, behavioural or geographic. Speciation due to divergence of isolated populations can be gradual. Speciation can occur abruptly. Topic 11: Animal Physiology- 16 Hours for HL Only Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Antibody production and vaccination (HL ONLY) 11.1 Every organism has unique molecules on the surface of its cells. Pathogens can be species-specific although others can cross species barriers. B lymphocytes are activated by T lymphocytes in mammals. Activated B cells multiply to form clones of plasma cells and memory cells. Plasma cells secrete antibodies. Antibodies aid the destruction of pathogens. White cells release histamine in response to allergens. Histamines cause allergic symptoms. Immunity depends upon the persistence of memory cells. Vaccines contain antigens that trigger immunity but do not cause the disease. Fusion of a tumour cell with an antibody-producing plasma cell creates a hybridoma cell. Monoclonal antibodies are produced by hybridoma cells. Movement (HL ONLY) 11.2 Bones and exoskeletons provide anchorage for muscles and act as levers. Synovial joints allow certain movements but not others. Movement of the body requires muscles to work in antagonistic pairs. Skeletal muscle fibres are multinucleate and contain specialized endoplasmic reticulum. Muscle fibres contain many myofibrils. Each myofibril is made up of contractile sarcomeres. The contraction of the skeletal muscle is achieved by the sliding of actin and myosin filaments. ATP hydrolysis and cross bridge formation are necessary for the filaments to slide. Calcium ions and the proteins tropomyosin and troponin control muscle contractions. The kidney and osmoregulation (HL ONLY) 11.3 Animals are either osmoregulators or osmoconformers. The Malpighian tubule system in insects and the kidney carry out osmoregulation and removal of nitrogenous wastes. The composition of blood in the renal artery is different from that in the renal vein. The ultrastructure of the glomerulus and Bowman’s capsule facilitate ultrafiltration. The proximal convoluted tubule selectively reabsorbs useful substances by active transport. The loop of Henle maintains hypertonic conditions in the medulla. ADH controls reabsorption of water in the collecting duct. The length of the loop of Henle is positively correlated with the need for water conservation in animals. The type of nitrogenous waste in animals is correlated with evolutionary history and habitat. Sexual reproduction (HL ONLY) 11.4 Spermatogenesis and oogenesis both involve mitosis, cell growth, two divisions of meiosis and differentiation. Processes in spermatogenesis and oogenesis result in different numbers of gametes with different amounts of cytoplasm. Fertilization in animals can be internal or external. Fertilization involves mechanisms that prevent polyspermy. Implantation of the blastocyst in the endometrium is essential for the continuation of pregnancy. HCG stimulates the ovary to secrete progesterone during early pregnancy. The placenta facilitates the exchange of materials between the mother and fetus. Estrogen and progesterone are secreted by the placenta once it has formed. Birth is mediated by positive feedback involving estrogen and oxytocin. Options As a part of the IB Biology class, you'll cover one additional subject from the options below. (Typically you don’t choose, but rather your teacher does.) Whichever option you or your teacher chooses, you'll cover three or four topics (15 hours total) for SL and an additional two or three topics (25 hours total) for HL. Option A: Neurobiology and Behaviour- 15 Hours for SL and 25 hours for HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Neural development A.1 The neural tube of embryonic chordates is formed by infolding of ectoderm followed by elongation of the tube. Neurons are initially produced by differentiation in the neural tube. Immature neurons migrate to a final location. An axon grows from each immature neuron in response to chemical stimuli. Some axons extend beyond the neural tube to reach other parts of the body. A developing neuron forms multiple synapses. Synapses that are not used do not persist. Neural pruning involves the loss of unused neurons. The plasticity of the nervous system allows it to change with experience. The human brain A.2 The anterior part of the neural tube expands to form the brain. Different parts of the brain have specific roles. The autonomic nervous system controls involuntary processes in the body using centres located mainly in the brain stem. The cerebral cortex forms a larger proportion of the brain and is more highly developed in humans than other animals. The human cerebral cortex has become enlarged principally by an increase in total area with extensive folding to accommodate it within the cranium. The cerebral hemispheres are responsible for higher order functions. The left cerebral hemisphere receives sensory input from sensory receptors in the right side of the body and the right side of the visual field in both eyes and vice versa for the right hemisphere. The left cerebral hemisphere controls muscle contraction in the right side of the body and vice versa for the right hemisphere. Brain metabolism requires large energy inputs. Perception of stimuli A.3 Receptors detect changes in the environment. Rods and cones are photoreceptors located in the retina. Rods and cones differ in their sensitivities to light intensities and wavelengths. Bipolar cells send the impulses from rods and cones to ganglion cells. Ganglion cells send messages to the brain via the optic nerve. The information from the right field of vision from both eyes is sent to the left part of the visual cortex and vice versa. Structures in the middle ear transmit and amplify sound. Sensory hairs of the cochlea detect sounds of specific wavelengths. Impulses caused by sound perception are transmitted to the brain via the auditory nerve. Hair cells in the semicircular canals detect movement of the head. Additional HL Neurobiology and Behaviour Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Innate and learned behaviour (HL ONLY) A.4 Innate behaviour is inherited from parents and so develops independently of the environment. Autonomic and involuntary responses are referred to as reflexes. Reflex arcs comprise the neurons that mediate reflexes. Reflex conditioning involves forming new associations. Learned behaviour develops as a result of experience. Imprinting is learning occurring at a particular life stage and is independent of the consequences of behaviour. Operant conditioning is a form of learning that consists of trial and error experiences. Learning is the acquisition of skill or knowledge. Memory is the process of encoding, storing and accessing information. Neuropharmacology (HL ONLY) A.5 Some neurotransmitters excite nerve impulses in postsynaptic neurons and others inhibit them. Nerve impulses are initiated or inhibited in post-synaptic neurons as a result of summation of all excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters received from presynaptic neurones. Many different slow-acting neurotransmitters modulate fast synaptic transmission in the brain. Memory and learning involve changes in neurones caused by slow-acting neurotransmitters. Psychoactive drugs affect the brain by either increasing or decreasing postsynaptic transmission. Anesthetics act by interfering with neural transmission between areas of sensory perception and the CNS. Stimulant drugs mimic the stimulation provided by the sympathetic nervous system. Addiction can be affected by genetic predisposition, social environment and dopamine secretion. Ethology (HL ONLY) A.6 Ethology is the study of animal behaviour in natural conditions. Natural selection can change the frequency of observed animal behaviour. Behaviour that increases the chances of survival and reproduction will become more prevalent in a population. Learned behaviour can spread through a population or be lost from it more rapidly than innate behaviour. Option B: Biotechnology and Bioinformatics- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Microbiology: organisms in industry B.1 Microorganisms are metabolically diverse. Microorganisms are used in industry because they are small and have a fast growth rate. Pathway engineering optimizes genetic and regulatory processes within microorganisms. Pathway engineering is used industrially to produce metabolites of interest. Fermenters allow large-scale production of metabolites by microorganisms. Fermentation is carried out by batch or continuous culture. Microorganisms in fermenters become limited by their own waste products. Probes are used to monitor conditions within fermenters. Conditions are maintained at optimal levels for the growth of the microorganisms being cultured. Biotechnology in agriculture B.2 Transgenic organisms produce proteins that were not previously part of their species’ proteome. Genetic modification can be used to overcome environmental resistance to increase crop yields. Genetically modified crop plants can be used to produce novel products. Bioinformatics plays a role in identifying target genes. The target gene is linked to other sequences that control its expression. An open reading frame is a significant length of DNA from a start codon to a stop codon. Marker genes are used to indicate successful uptake. Recombinant DNA must be inserted into the plant cell and taken up by its chromosome or chloroplast DNA. Recombinant DNA can be introduced into whole plants, leaf discs or protoplasts. Recombinant DNA can be introduced by direct physical and chemical methods or indirectly by vectors. Environmental protection B.3 Responses to pollution incidents can involve bioremediation combined with physical and chemical procedures. Microorganisms are used in bioremediation. Some pollutants are metabolized by microorganisms. Cooperative aggregates of microorganisms can form biofilms. Biofilms possess emergent properties. Microorganisms growing in a biofilm are highly resistant to antimicrobial agents. Microorganisms in biofilms cooperate through quorum sensing. Bacteriophages are used in the disinfection of water systems. Additional HL Biotechnology and Bioinfomatics Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Medicine (HL ONLY) B.4 Infection by a pathogen can be detected by the presence of its genetic material or by its antigens. Predisposition to a genetic disease can be detected through the presence of markers. DNA microarrays can be used to test for genetic predisposition or to diagnose the disease. Metabolites that indicate disease can be detected in blood and urine. Tracking experiments are used to gain information about the localization and interaction of a desired protein. Biopharming uses genetically modified animals and plants to produce proteins for therapeutic use. Viral vectors can be used in gene therapy. Bioinformatics (HL ONLY) B.5 Databases allow scientists easy access to information. The body of data stored in databases is increasing exponentially. BLAST searches can identify similar sequences in different organisms. Gene function can be studied using model organisms with similar sequences. Sequence alignment software allows comparison of sequences from different organisms. BLASTn allows nucleotide sequence alignment while BLASTp allows protein alignment. Databases can be searched to compare newly identified sequences with sequences of known function in other organisms. Multiple sequence alignment is used in the study of phylogenetics. EST is an expressed sequence tag that can be used to identify potential genes. Option C: Ecology and Conservation- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Species and communities C.1 The distribution of species is affected by limiting factors. Community structure can be strongly affected by keystone species. Each species plays a unique role within a community because of the unique combination of its spatial habitat and interactions with other species. Interactions between species in a community can be classified according to their effect. Two species cannot survive indefinitely in the same habitat if their niches are identical. Communities and ecosystems C.2 Most species occupy different trophic levels in multiple food chains. A food web shows all the possible food chains in a community. The percentage of ingested energy converted to biomass is dependent on the respiration rate. The type of stable ecosystem that will emerge in an area is predictable based on climate. In closed ecosystems energy but not matter is exchanged with the surroundings. Disturbance influences the structure and rate of change within ecosystems. Impacts of humans on ecosystems C.3 Introduced alien species can escape into local ecosystems and become invasive. Competitive exclusion and the absence of predators can lead to reduction in the numbers of endemic species when alien species become invasive. Pollutants become concentrated in the tissues of organisms at higher trophic levels by biomagnification. Macroplastic and microplastic debris has accumulated in marine environments. Conservation of biodiversity C.4 An indicator species is an organism used to assess a specific environmental condition. Relative numbers of indicator species can be used to calculate the value of a biotic index. In situ conservation may require active management of nature reserves or national parks. Ex situ conservation is the preservation of species outside their natural habitats. Biogeographic factors affect species diversity. Richness and evenness are components of biodiversity. Additional HL Ecology and Conservation Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Population ecology (HL ONLY) C.5 Sampling techniques are used to estimate population size. The exponential growth pattern occurs in an ideal, unlimited environment. Population growth slows as a population reaches the carrying capacity of the environment. The phases shown in the sigmoid curve can be explained by relative rates of natality, mortality, immigration and emigration. Limiting factors can be top down or bottom up. Nitrogen and phosphorus cycles (HL ONLY) C.6 Nitrogen-fixing bacteria convert atmospheric nitrogen to ammonia. Rhizobium associates with roots in a mutualistic relationship. In the absence of oxygen denitrifying bacteria reduce nitrate in the soil. Phosphorus can be added to the phosphorus cycle by application of fertilizer or removed by the harvesting of agricultural crops. The rate of turnover in the phosphorus cycle is much lower than the nitrogen cycle. Availability of phosphate may become limiting to agriculture in the future. Leaching of mineral nutrients from agricultural land into rivers causes eutrophication and leads to increased biochemical oxygen demand. Option D: Human Physiology- 15 Hours for SL and HL Subtopic Subtopic Number IB Points to Understand Human nutrition D.1 Essential nutrients cannot be synthesized by the body, therefore they have to be included in the diet. Dietary minerals are essential chemical elements. Vitamins are chemically diverse carbon compounds that cannot be synthesized by the body. Some fatty acids and some amino acids are essential. Lack of essential amino acids affects the production of proteins. Malnutrition may be caused by a deficiency, imbalance or excess of nutrients in the diet. Appetite is controlled by a centre in the hypothalamus. Overweight individuals are more likely to suffer hypertension and type II diabetes. Starvation can lead to breakdown of body tissue. Digestion D.2 Nervous and hormonal mechanisms control the secretion of digestive juices. Exocrine glands secrete to the surface of the body or the lumen of the gut. The volume and content of gastric secretions are controlled by nervous and hormonal mechanisms. Acid conditions in the stomach favour some hydrolysis reactions and help to control pathogens in ingested food. The structure of cells of the epithelium of the villi is adapted to the absorption of food. The rate of transit of materials through the large intestine is positively correlated with their fibre content. Materials not absorbed are egested. Functions of the liver D.3 The liver removes toxins from the blood and detoxifies them. Components of red blood cells are recycled by the liver. The breakdown of erythrocytes starts with phagocytosis of red blood cells by Kupffer cells. Iron is carried to the bone marrow to produce hemoglobin in new red blood cells. Surplus cholesterol is converted to bile salts. Endoplasmic reticulum and Golgi apparatus in hepatocytes produce plasma proteins. The liver intercepts blood from the gut to regulate nutrient levels. Some nutrients in excess can be stored in the liver. The heart D.4 Structure of cardiac muscle cells allows propagation of stimuli through the heart wall. Signals from the sinoatrial node that cause contraction cannot pass directly from atria to ventricles. There is a delay between the arrival and passing on of a stimulus at the atrioventricular node. This delay allows time for atrial systole before the atrioventricular valves close. Conducting fibres ensure coordinated contraction of the entire ventricle wall. Normal heart sounds are caused by the atrioventricular valves and semilunar valves closing causing changes in blood flow. Additional HL Human Physiology Topics- 10 More Hours for HL Hormones and metabolism (HL ONLY) D.5 Endocrine glands secrete hormones directly into the bloodstream. Steroid hormones bind to receptor proteins in the cytoplasm of the target cell to form a receptor–hormone complex. The receptor–hormone complex promotes the transcription of specific genes. Peptide hormones bind to receptors in the plasma membrane of the target cell. Binding of hormones to membrane receptors activates a cascade mediated by a second messenger inside the cell. The hypothalamus controls hormone secretion by the anterior and posterior lobes of the pituitary gland. Hormones secreted by the pituitary control growth, developmental changes, reproduction and homeostasis. Transport of respiratory gases (HL ONLY) D.6 Oxygen dissociation curves show the affinity of hemoglobin for oxygen. Carbon dioxide is carried in solution and bound to hemoglobin in the blood. Carbon dioxide is transformed in red blood cells into hydrogencarbonate ions. The Bohr shift explains the increased release of oxygen by hemoglobin in respiring tissues. Chemoreceptors are sensitive to changes in blood pH. The rate of ventilation is controlled by the respiratory control centre in the medulla oblongata. During exercise the rate of ventilation changes in response to the amount of CO2 in the blood. Fetal hemoglobin is different from adult hemoglobin allowing the transfer of oxygen in the placenta onto the fetal hemoglobin. Practical Scheme of Work You also need to complete experiments and experimental reports as a part of any IB Science course. For SL, there is 40 hours of material. For HL, there is 60 hours of material. Here are the activities: Practical activities: 20 hours for SL and 40 hours for HL Lab work in class counts towards these hours Individual investigation (internal assessment-IA): 10 hours for SL and HL A lab project along with a report that counts as 20% of your IB exam scores (written exam counts for the other 80%) Group 4 Project:10 hours for SL and HL Students are separated into groups and must conduct an experiment and write a report. Experiments may not be this cool. What’s Next? Thinking about taking AP Biology instead? Learn what's covered in a AP Bio here. Looking for more in-depth explorations of the topics mentioned on this syllabus? Read our subject-specific articles on topics varying from the photosynthesis equation to homologous and analogous structures to cell biology (including cell theory, enzymes, and how the cell membrane and endoplasmic reticulum work). Are you hoping to squeeze in some extra IB classes? Learn about the IB courses offered online. Studying for the SAT? Check out our complete guide to the SAT. Taking the SAT in the next month? Check out our guide to cramming. Not sure where you want to go to college? Check out our guide to finding your target school. Want to improve your SAT score by 160 points or your ACT score by 4 points? We've written a guide for each test about the top 5 strategies you must be using to have a shot at improving your score. Download it for free now:

Saudi anti cybercrime law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Saudi anti cybercrime law - Essay Example which is equipped with a system to process, store, transmit, receive or browse data and perform specific functions according to programs and commands. Article 3: Any person who commits one of the following cyber crimes shall be subject to imprisonment, for a period not exceeding one year and a fine not exceeding five hundred thousand riyals or to either punishment: Article 4: Any person who commits one of the following cyber crimes shall be subject to imprisonment, for a period not exceeding three years and a fine not exceeding two million riyals, or to either punishment: Article 5: Any person who commits one of the following cyber crimes shall be subject to imprisonment, for a period not exceeding four years and a fine not exceeding three million riyals or to either punishment: Article 6: Any person who commits one of the following cyber crimes shall be subject to imprisonment, for a period not exceeding five years and a fine not exceeding three million riyals or to either punishment: Article 7: Any person who commits one of the following cyber crimes shall be subject to imprisonment, for a period not exceeding ten years, and a fine not exceeding five million riyals or to either punishment: 1. The construction or publicizing of a web site on the information network or on a computer for terrorist organizations to facilitate communication with leaders or members of such organizations, finance them, promote their ideologies, and publicize methods of making incendiary devices or explosives, or any other means used in terrorist activities. 2. Unlawful access to a web site or an information system directly, or through the information network or any computer with the intention of obtaining data jeopardizing the internal or external security of the State or its national economy. Article 9: Any person who incites, assists or collaborates with others to commit any of the crimes stipulated in this law shall be subject to a punishment, not exceeding the maximum

Airbus Business Plan Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 2000 words

Airbus Business Plan - Essay Example AS), it leases and finances about 1,680 owned and managed commercial aircrafts and serves over 230 customers in over 75 countries around the world (GE Capital Aviation Services). Results, analysis and discussion We think that a joint venture with GE is a mutually beneficial partnership today and into the future. Strategically each partner will be able to increase business volumes and serve more customers. The partnership has to be focussed on innovation in new cost-efficient aircrafts and lighter but able to do the same work or even higher. World economic crisis impacting the world did not spare the industry as revenue streams thinned, passenger numbers dwindled or stagnated growth making airlines use innovative ways to remain in operation. This is expected to be short-term, but passenger growth is expected to pick and grow at an average of 4.7% in the period under industry forecast. Growth is expected to double the passenger numbers in all routes (Airbus S.A.S. 2009). Competitors in the industry are applying the latest technology in aircraft manufacture to make lighter aircrafts consuming less fuel. Our venture will focus towards innovation to counter the stiff competition by making compatible engines towards this end. Research and development (R&D) are crucial in attaining this goal alongside partners such as GE. Airlines in the world buying planes from us have been finding problems in servicing and repairing planes. This forced them to fly in technicians from either our company or GE, or fly the plane to our factory to be repaired. GE has been investing in setting local repair and servicing centres in the countries where airlines have major operations. We believe this is the best strategy to be closer to clients offering them first-hand services and appropriate...Competitors in the industry are applying the latest technology in aircraft manufacture to make lighter aircrafts consuming less fuel. Our venture will focus towards innovation to counter the stiff c ompetition by making compatible engines towards this end. Research and development (R&D) are crucial in attaining this goal alongside partners such as GE. Airlines in the world buying planes from us have been finding problems in servicing and repairing planes. This forced them to fly in technicians from either our company or GE, or fly the plane to our factory to be repaired. GE has been investing in setting local repair and servicing centres in the countries where airlines have major operations. We believe this is the best strategy to be closer to clients offering them first-hand services and appropriate technical advice. This will enable the airlines to cut repair costs, downtime and turnaround time hence making more money. R&D at GE has enabled them this far, to produce another state-of-the-art advanced environmentally compatible technology GP7200 engine for Airbus A380. The engine is technically advanced fit for the world biggest wide-body planes (GE Aviation 2012). Continued research is imperative in the area of carbon emission and sound pollution to reduce green house gas emissions. The industry estimates that over the last forty years, carbon emission and aircraft fuel burn has been reduced by 70% while noise pollution has been reduced by about 75%

Leadership Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words - 37

Leadership - Essay Example I think I need to encourage my team to participate more in decision making and implementing ideas. I should also encourage them to be creative while coaching them on new procedures. I can achieve these goals by taking initiative, doing more critical thinking and learning the art of effective listening (Montana & Charnov, 2008). Taking initiative will involve going beyond my position and picking on skills I can develop further. Working closely with people and sharing ideas is a good start. By critically thinking out situations, I can foresee problems before they actually occur. Apart from problems, potential opportunities can also be noticed and taken advantage of for the whole team’s benefit (Zweifel, 2008). Finally, listening will enable me to point out each team member’s strong point and be able to give feedback, while am also adviced on how best to incorporate my ideas into common projects. Listening creates an open communication platform that facilitates effective flow of information. I believe becoming a good team leader is more than my personal effort. It will take the whole team to drive me there (Zaccaro,

Assignment 2 Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1000 words - 9

Assignment 2 - Essay Example In his book, Diamond argues against this notion, and in its stead, he proposes the environmental and geographical theory. In his postulates, he attributes Eurasian success on various environmental and geographical factors that played a significant role in their civilization’s development and advancement. These attributes are reflected in the book’s title, in the sense that their civilization produced guns, steel and germs that were used as weapons against other lesser civilizations. The dog is scientifically referred to as Canis lupus familiaris and as ‘man’s best friend’ due to the fact that it is a widely accepted that it was the first animal to be domesticated by man. Archeological evidence indicates that man began domesticating wolves approximately 33,000 years ago (Diamond 94). According to Diamond (88), dogs are a subspecies of the gray wolf, with DNA evidence indicating that there was an evolutionary split between wolves’ and dogs’ lineage at around 100,000 years ago (Diamond 211). This is attributed to disruptions and variations in climate, and the subsequent changes in the environment that led to genetic and morphological adaptations to facilitate continued survival of the species. This is reflective of Diamond’s postulate that the environment played a key role in influencing the supremacy of the Eurasian civilizations. Dogs are used for various purposes, uses and needs in the daily lives of humans, where they have been kept for working, as pets, for hunting, protection and in assisting handicapped people. The initial domestication of dogs was to aid in man’s hunting activities, which was one of his basic modes of acquiring food, with the other method being foraging or gathering of wild fruits, seeds, tubers and roots. According to Diamond (162), the Eurasian region was geographically conducive for the domestication of more wild animals than other in the world. The earliest signs of dog or wolf

Inclusion - Special Educational Needs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Inclusion - Special Educational Needs - Essay Example and b., in the absence of the special educational provisions (Sec. 312 Education Act 1996) (Blackpool Council, 2009) educational provisions that are in addition to or happen to be inherently different from the educational provisions extended to the other students of the same age group in the academic institutions run by the Local Authorities (Blackpool Council, 2009). There are many children who face learning disabilities of one kind or other during their school years. Children having special educational needs may require extra help while dealing with a range of areas in their schools that include: Generally speaking, making provisions for the children with special educational needs in the secondary education is a very humane approach towards education and is in consonance with the contemporary Western ideals pertaining to education. Every child deserves a chance to make the best of his/her abilities and the inherent disabilities in no way should hamper a child from pursuing proper education and academic aspirations. However, the concept of SEN took a relatively long time to become an integral part of the British education system. The Education Act of 1944 strived to define special educational needs in terms of concrete and discernable medical disabilities. The Warnock Report of 1978 that preceded the 1981 Education Act revolutionized the concept of special educational needs, that became much more inclusive in its approach and aspired to define the learning disabilities in terms of the "common educational goals for all children" (House of Commons Educational and Skills Committee, 2005: 11). The ensuing legislations stressed upon the need for not discriminating against the children with special educational needs. However, the 1981 Education Act failed to make ample financial provisions for statementing and teacher training. Through out the 90s despite the existence of Warnock Framework, there was a marked decline in the number of children in special schools and a steady rise in the number of children identified as having special educational needs (House of Commons Educational and Skills Committee, 2005: 13). T he Labour government tried to align the state standing in consonance with the UN Statement on Special Needs Education 1994, in the form of 1997 Green Paper 'Excellence for All Children Meeting Special Educational Needs (House of Commons Education and Skills Committee, 2005: 11). Thus for the first time the state tried to make a genuine and sincere effort to incorporate the

Principles of International Insurance Law Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 750 words

Principles of International Insurance Law - Essay Example Did it operate as an inducement to the insurer to enter into the policy In order to be entitled to avoid a contract of insurance or reinsurance on the ground of non-disclosure the insurer must show both that the fact not disclosed was material, and that its non-disclosure induced the contract. To be material a fact did not have to have a decisive influence on the mind of the prudent underwriter. The test is as stated in subsections 18(2) and 20(2) which relate to non-disclosure and misrepresentation respectively and which set out the common law principles relevant to non-marine (as well as marine) insurance. The material non-disclosure or misrepresentation must induce the contract. It is not sufficient that the non-disclosure or misrepresentation is material. ". . . there is to be implied in the Act of 1906 a qualification that a material representation will not entitle the underwriter to avoid the policy unless the misrepresentation induced the making of the contract, using "induced " in the sense in which it is used in the general law of contract" and "in practice the line between misrepresentation and non-disclosure is often imperceptible." The claimants insured their yacht with the defendants for a value as certified by an independent valuer. The defendants claimed he had misrepresented the value in the proposal. The words 'sum insured' indicated a ceiling on a claim on an unvalued policy. There was no indication from the insurers on the proposal form that they would agree the value, but rather they asked only for the value to be insured. The policy was therefore an unvalued policy. HIH Casualty and General Insurance Ltd and Others -v- Chase Manhattan Bank and Others [2001] 1 Lloyd's Rep 30 19 Sep 2000 QBD Aikens J Insurance, Media Casemap 1 Citers As a contract for speculation, a duty of utmost good faith is not implied in a contract insurance. The duty of disclosure by an insured can be limited by the contract as can the freedom of the insurance company to avoid liability. If the wording is clear enough, even a deliberate non-disclosure amounting concealment might be excused. Nevertheless the contract might be rescindable at the option of the insurer. Court: California Appellate Districts Topic: Civil Procedure, Contracts, Injury And Tort Law, Insurance Law Title: Wilson v. 21st Century Ins. Co. Date: 01/30/06 Case Number: B180323 Summary: Summary judgment for defendant-insurer in an action for breach of contract and tortious bad faith in adjusting plaintiff's underinsured motorist claim is reversed where triable issues of fact existed as to whether defendant failed to thoroughly investigate and evaluate plaintiff's claim, and plaintiff was entitled to additional discovery. http://caselaw.lp.findlaw.com/scripts/viewcase.plcourt=0&subject=Insurance+Law&casenum=&party=&date1=&date3=&date2=&search=Search The insured purchased a house, converted it to two apartments and left Cape Breton to find work in British Columbia. The house remained vacant

Inclusion - Special Educational Needs Essay Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 1500 words

Inclusion - Special Educational Needs - Essay Example and b., in the absence of the special educational provisions (Sec. 312 Education Act 1996) (Blackpool Council, 2009) educational provisions that are in addition to or happen to be inherently different from the educational provisions extended to the other students of the same age group in the academic institutions run by the Local Authorities (Blackpool Council, 2009). There are many children who face learning disabilities of one kind or other during their school years. Children having special educational needs may require extra help while dealing with a range of areas in their schools that include: Generally speaking, making provisions for the children with special educational needs in the secondary education is a very humane approach towards education and is in consonance with the contemporary Western ideals pertaining to education. Every child deserves a chance to make the best of his/her abilities and the inherent disabilities in no way should hamper a child from pursuing proper education and academic aspirations. However, the concept of SEN took a relatively long time to become an integral part of the British education system. The Education Act of 1944 strived to define special educational needs in terms of concrete and discernable medical disabilities. The Warnock Report of 1978 that preceded the 1981 Education Act revolutionized the concept of special educational needs, that became much more inclusive in its approach and aspired to define the learning disabilities in terms of the "common educational goals for all children" (House of Commons Educational and Skills Committee, 2005: 11). The ensuing legislations stressed upon the need for not discriminating against the children with special educational needs. However, the 1981 Education Act failed to make ample financial provisions for statementing and teacher training. Through out the 90s despite the existence of Warnock Framework, there was a marked decline in the number of children in special schools and a steady rise in the number of children identified as having special educational needs (House of Commons Educational and Skills Committee, 2005: 13). T he Labour government tried to align the state standing in consonance with the UN Statement on Special Needs Education 1994, in the form of 1997 Green Paper 'Excellence for All Children Meeting Special Educational Needs (House of Commons Education and Skills Committee, 2005: 11). Thus for the first time the state tried to make a genuine and sincere effort to incorporate the

Discussion 8 Article Example | Topics and Well Written Essays - 250 words

Discussion 8 - Article Example The university philosophy promotes cultural diversity. Students from diverse cultural backgrounds get the opportunity to meet and interact with each other. This enables the students to provide health care services to diverse groups irrespective of race or ethnicity (FIU, 2015). Moreover, the philosophy enables the students to play critical roles in overcoming the healthcare challenges of the ever-changing world. Entering the workforce, students are able to work excellently in their roles and cooperate with other health professionals in providing patients with a complete variety of care. The Florida International University has developed a strategic plan to enhance student learning and academic excellence. The strategic plan also enhances the quality, quantity and impact of research and creative initiatives to help in solving health care problems within the society. The nurses are able to link research to local economic development in providing quality health services to the community. The University has human and material resources that promote learning and achieving nursing goals. The resources fund research and training projects that are domineering in promoting health services delivery to the society. Furthermore, the institution evaluates the trained nurses to ensure that they deliver exceptional health care services to the

Pro and Anti Social Behaviour Essay Example for Free

Pro and Anti Social Behaviour Essay a) Outline two psychological theories of aggression (12 marks) b) Evaluate two theories of aggression that you outlined in part a) in terms of relevant research studies (12 marks) a) Outline and evaluate two psychological theories of aggression (24 marks) Aggression is an example of anti-social behaviour. It has been defined as any form of behaviour directed towards the goal of harming or injuring another living being who is motivated to avoid such harm. Social Psychological theories of aggression These explain aggression as a result of social interactions Social Learning Theory (SLT) One of the most influential theories of aggression is the Social Learning theory put forward by Bandura (1973). The nature of the theory suggests human aggression is learned either through direct experience or by observing aggressive behaviour in other people i. e. indirect experience. Bandura produced two assumptions in relation to the social learning theory. He stated that if a child acts aggressively against another child and as a result gets what they want, their aggressive behaviour has been reinforced. This is an example of learning by direct experience, derived from the principles of the traditional learning theory; operant and classical conditioning. Secondly, he stated that if a child observes another person behaving in an aggressive manner, they may imitate that behaviour them selves, particularly if they see the model reinforced for behaving in that way. This is an example of vicarious experience. Results from Banduras studies have shown that children are more likely to imitate models if they are similar to themselves, have some kind of status or who are seen to be rewarded for their actions. He also applied these factors to his Social Learning theory. Bobo Doll study Bandura (1961) Support for the Social Learning theory comes from studies using Bobo dolls (an inflatable toy). This was conducted by Bandura et al (1961). He carried out a study where Nursery school children watched a film where an adult model behaved aggressively or non-aggressively towards a Bobo doll. The adult model displayed some distinctive physical acts of aggression, for example kicking it and using verbal aggression such as Pow! Following this, the children were taken to a room and shown attractive toys that they were forbidden to play with. This created a sense of frustration within the children. They were then taken to a room containing a Bobo doll and other toys and were then rated for the amount of aggression they showed. Bandura found that children in the aggressive condition reproduced the physical and verbal behaviours modelled by the adult. In contrast children in the non-aggressive condition showed very little aggression towards the doll. This shows that children can acquire aggressive behaviours from watching the actions of others. Evidence that supports the Social Learning Theory Further research evidence has been carried out in relation to aggression which supports Banduras theory. Silvern and Williamson (1987) investigated the effect video games have on aggression. They found that aggression levels in children increased after playing violent games. This suggests that this was due to imitation or modelling. However, the study lacks validity because it only identifies short term aggression, not long term aggression therefore, it does not prove any permanent effects. Furthermore, Margeret and Mead (1935) studied aggression in relation to cross cultural differences. She studied three New Gunea tribes and found that each tribe behaved different in terms of aggressive tendencies. This suggests that the fact that some societies were more aggressive than others supports the role of social learning in aggression. However, the fact that the men were relatively more aggressive in each society suggests that some aspects of aggression are biologically determined. Evidence that challenges the Social Learning Theory However, this theory has been challenged by a number of psychologists. Johnston et al (1977) carried out another study in which he found that children who behaved most aggressively towards the doll were the ones rated by the teachers as most violent generally. Also, Durkin (1995) suggested that Bandura made no distinguish between aggressive behaviour and play fighting. These studies therefore suggest that the findings from the Bobo Doll study lack reliability. In addition, the study has ethical issues as it encourages aggression in children. Furthermore, the situation is unlike a lot of real-life modeling as hitting a doll is no the same as hitting a person. This leads to the assumption that Bandura over exaggerated the extent to which children imitate the behaviour of models. This also leads to the criticism that the study lacks ecological validity due to its artificial setting; therefore the results may not apply to real life. Also, some critics argue that the children were manipulated into responding to the aggressive movie. This was because the children were teased and became aggressive because they could not touch the toys. Finally, there is a problem that the study suffers from high demand characteristics due to the children being given cues how to behave, resulting in the participants to behave in certain predictable ways. Alternative theories Alternative social psychological theories of aggression have also been produced, challenging the idea that aggression is solely based upon imitation, modelling and reinforcement. Deindividuation theory One of these is the Deindividuation theory proposed by Zimbardo (1969). Deindividuation refers to the loss of a sense of personality identity that can occur when we are for example, in a large crowd or wearing a mask. We then become more likely to engage in anti-social, un-socialised behaviour. Zimbardo (1969) distinguished between individual behaviour, which conforms to acceptable social standards, and deindividuated behaviour, which does not conform to societys social norms. He claimed that people dont normally act aggressively because they are easily identifiable in societies that have strong norms against aggressive behaviour. Being anonymous (and therefore effectively unaccountable) in a crowd has the consequence of reducing inner restraints and increasing behaviours that are usually inhibited. According to Zimbardo, being in part of a crowd can reduce awareness of our own individuality. In a large crowd, each person is faceless and anonymous (so the larger the group, the greater the anonymity), reducing the fear of negative evaluation of our actions and a diminishing the sense of guilt. Therefore, individuals feel less constrained by the norms of social behaviour and as a result, they may be more inclined to act in an anti-social way. This is supported by Mann (1981) who found evidence of Deindividuation in the baiting crowd (crowds who frequently baited a potential suicide victim to jump). Mann found that baiting increased under conditions which increased the anonymity of the crowd (e. g. numbers, darkness and distance from the victim). This therefore supports the claim that deindividuation increases aggressive behaviour. The deindividuation theory is also supported by Zimbardo (1969) who left abandoned cars in New York and a small town in California. He found the abandoned car in the big city was stripped and vandalised very quickly whereas the one in the small town was left alone. This suggests that the larger the group, the more anonymous the individual is and, consequently, the more extreme the antisocial behaviour becomes. Futhermore, Zimbardo (1963) conducted a study specifically to demonstrate the effects of deindividuation on aggression. Participants were asked to shock a confederate. Some were deindividuated (wore a hood, no names were used and they sat in a dimly lit room) and others were easily identifiable (they wore name tags and sat in a bright room). The findings showed that the deindividuated students administered the most shocks, i. e. were most aggressive, suggesting that deindividuation plays a role in producing anti-social behaviour. However, the major difficulty with using Deindividuation as an explanation for aggression is the fact that it does not always lead to aggression. In some circumstances it can lead to high levels of pro-social behaviour, for example wearing a nurses uniform. Overall Evaluation Overall, the Social learning theory can account for the fact that a persons aggressive behaviour may not be consistent across different situations. It may be reinforced in some situations, but punished in others (context-dependant learning). Furthermore, studies carried out into video games and aggressions are consistent with the Social Learning theory. However, alternative explanations such as the biological explanation (e. g. levels of testosterone are linked to aggressive behaviour) challenge the view that social learning is the primary causal factor in aggression. In addition, the social learning theory is limited in scope because aggression doesnt just depend on observational learning. This is supported by cross cultural evidence which demonstrates that some aspects of aggression are innate. Effects of environmental stressors on aggressive behaviour Use for: Describe and evaluate research (theories or studies) into the effects of two or more environmental stressors on aggressive behaviour (24 marks) A number of environmental factors have been identified as triggers for aggression. Some of these possible environmental features are temperature, overcrowding and noise.